This is a working overview of GW501516, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2025-12-13 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Sporting authorities added GW501516 to prohibited lists after it appeared in athlete samples and online markets. The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a hormone and metabolic modulator, and its use can lead to an anti-doping rule violation. Some early laboratory work suggested effects on fatty acid oxidation and endurance-related metabolism in animals, but those findings do not establish safe or effective use in people. Reports of adverse events in humans are scarce and often anecdotal, which complicates risk assessment.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Regulatory treatment varies, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine. Sports authorities list GW501516 as a prohibited substance, and it is banned at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency code. Many countries restrict sales for human consumption, while online vendors market it as a research chemical. Such products may lack purity data, and their actual contents can differ from the label. Purchasing or possessing cardarine may carry legal consequences depending on jurisdiction. The compound is not a dietary supplement ingredient in regulated markets.
Clinical development stopped after rodent studies showed tumors at multiple sites. Whether those findings predict human cancer risk remains an open question, but they led sponsors to discontinue programs. Human safety data are limited to small, short-term studies that were not designed to assess cancer risk. Reported effects in those studies included changes in blood lipids, but the evidence is insufficient for medical use. Long-term consequences of nonmedical use are not well characterized. Questions about dose, duration, and individual susceptibility remain unresolved.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| IUPAC name | {4-[({4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazol-5-yl}methyl)sulfanyl]phenoxy}acetic acid | Systematic name for GW501516 |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the parent compound |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Includes carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
| Molecular weight | 453.5 g/mol | Approximate value for the neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical description for purified laboratory material |
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
GW501516 acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in transcription of genes related to lipid handling and energy use. Activation of PPARδ can shift skeletal muscle toward greater fatty acid oxidation in animal models, which is one reason it drew interest for metabolic disease and exercise research. The exact downstream effects depend on tissue, species, dose, and duration. Human data are sparse, so many proposed benefits remain hypotheses rather than established clinical outcomes.
Laboratory studies have examined GW501516 in cell cultures and rodents for conditions such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and obesity. Some trials in humans were initiated, but development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in certain models. Those findings do not prove that the compound causes cancer in people, but they contributed to regulatory caution. Later reviews often describe the evidence as preliminary and insufficient for assessing long-term safety.
Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scent, which comes from hydrocarbon-laced secretions that coat their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony without a matching scent will be attacked. Parasitic ant species enter the colonies of host ants and establish themselves as social parasites; species such as Strumigenys xenos are entirely parasitic and do not have workers, but instead, rely on the food gathered by their Strumigenys perplexa hosts. This form of parasitism is seen across many ant genera, but the parasitic ant is usually a species that is closely related to its host. A variety of methods are employed to enter the nest of the host ant. A parasitic queen may enter the host nest before the first brood has hatched, establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent. Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest. Some simply fight their way into the nest. A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with these reproducers apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible. The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring. An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in Wasmannia auropunctata, where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process whereby a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males who are clones of the father.
Religious affiliation in West Germany decreased from the 1960s onward. Religious affiliation declined faster among Protestants than among Catholics, causing the Roman Catholic Church to overtake the EKD as the largest denomination in the country during the 1970s.
Iron has four stable isotopes: 54Fe (5.845% of natural iron), 56Fe (91.754%), 57Fe (2.119%) and 58Fe (0.282%). Twenty-four artificial isotopes have also been created. Of these stable isotopes, only 57Fe has a nuclear spin (−1⁄2). The nuclide 54Fe theoretically can undergo double electron capture to 54Cr, but the process has never been observed and only a lower limit on the half-life of 4.4×1020 years has been established. 60Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (2.6 million years). It is not found on Earth, but its ultimate decay product is its granddaughter, the stable nuclide 60Ni. Much of the past work on isotopic composition of iron has focused on the nucleosynthesis of 60Fe through studies of meteorites and ore formation. In the last decade, advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work is driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are emerging. In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of 60Ni, the granddaughter of 60Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of 60Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System. Possibly the energy released by the decay of 60Fe, along with that released by 26Al, contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Indications === The lidocaine/prilocaine combination is indicated for dermal anaesthesia. Specifically it is applied to prevent pain associated with intravenous catheter insertion, blood sampling, superficial surgical procedures, and topical anaesthesia of leg ulcers for cleansing or debridement. Also, it can be used to numb the skin before tattooing as well as electrolysis and laser hair removal. It is also sometimes used in advance of injected local anaesthetics for minor surgery and biopsies. A topical spray consisting of an aerosol formulation of lidocaine and prilocaine was evaluated under the name PSD502 for use in treating premature ejaculation. The spray is applied on the penile skin prior to intercourse. While this formulation was not approved by the FDA, a similar product, Promescent, is available over-the-counter in the U.S.
=== Protein === AKR1B1 consists of 316 amino acid residues and weighs 35853Da. It does not possess the traditional dinucleotide binding fold. The way it binds NADPH differs from other nucleotide adenine dinucleotide-dependent enzymes. The active site pocket of human aldose reductase is relatively hydrophobic, lined by seven aromatic and four other non-polar residues.
=== Austro-Prussian War and Province of Prussia === In 1866, the Austro-Prussian War broke out, in which Prussia quickly defeated Austria and its allies. In the 1866 Peace of Prague, Prussia gained Holstein in addition to Schleswig and Lauenburg. Contrary to the hopes of German Schleswig-Holsteiners, the area did not gain its independence, but was annexed to Prussia, becoming the Province of Schleswig-Holstein in 1868; Lauenburg remained a separate entity until it was incorporated as Kreis Herzogtum Lauenburg in 1876. The Peace of Prague also led to the dissolution of the loose (confederal) Austrian-led German Confederation and the establishment of the far more integrated (federal) Prussian-led North German Confederation, of which Schleswig-Holstein was now part as a Prussian Province; the North German Confederation became the German Empire in 1871. Section five of the Peace of Prague had also stipulated that the people of Northern Schleswig would be consulted in a referendum on whether to remain under Prussian rule or return to Danish rule. This condition, however, was never fulfilled by Prussia. During the decades of Prussian rule within the German Empire, authorities attempted a Germanisation policy in the northern part of Schleswig, which remained predominantly Danish. The period also meant increased industrialisation of Schleswig-Holstein and the use of Kiel and Flensburg as important Imperial German Navy locations. The northernmost part and the west coast of the province saw a wave of emigration to America, while some Danes of North Schleswig emigrated to Denmark.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
A preprohormone is the precursor protein to one or more prohormones, which are in turn precursors to peptide hormones. In general, the protein consists of the amino acid chain that is created by the hormone-secreting cell, before any changes have been made to it. It contains a signal peptide, the hormone(s) itself (themselves), and intervening amino acids. Before the hormone is released from the cell, the signal peptide and other amino acids are removed.
=== Novel genes === In general, genes without detectable homologs can be summarized under the term novel genes. These genes can also be called orphan genes, or — more precisely — species-/lineage-specific genes. The term de novo describes a specific subclass of novel genes, namely genes emerging from non-genic sequences. A key caveat is that orphan (taxonomically restricted) genes are heterogeneous in origin and age—lack of detectable homology can reflect multiple processes (including horizontal transfer, transposable element domestication, overprinting, or extreme divergence) and is not, by itself, evidence of de novo origin.
==== Therapy ==== Breast augmentation via autologous fat grafts allows the oncological breast surgeon to consider conservative breast surgery procedures that usually are precluded by the presence of alloplastic breast implants, e.g. lumpectomy, if cancer is detected in an implant-augmented breast. In previously augmented patients, aesthetic outcomes cannot be ensured without removing the implant and performing mastectomy. Moreover, radiotherapy treatment is critical to reducing cancerous recurrence and to the maximal conservation of breast tissue; yet, radiotherapy of an implant-augmented breast much increases the incidence of medical complications – capsular contracture, infection, extrusion, and poor cosmetic outcome.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.
It is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a hormone and metabolic modulator. Athletes who test positive for GW501516 can face sanctions, including suspensions and loss of results.
Cardarine is a common or trade-style name, while GW501516 is the research code for the same chemical entity. Some sources also use Endurobol or GSK-516. The names refer to the same compound, not distinct drugs.
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.